TỔNG QUAN CHÍNH SÁCH VÀ CÔNG NGHỆ TÁI CHẾ RÁC THẢI ĐIỆN TỬ NHẰM HỖ TRỢ TĂNG TRƯỞNG XANH TẠI VIỆT NAM

1. Introduction

In the context of globalization and rapid technological advancement, the volume of electronic waste (e-waste) has been increasing sharply. According to Baldé et al. (2024) the world generated approximately 62 million tonnes of e-waste in 2022, yet only 22.3% of this amount was officially collected and recycled. Vietnam belongs to the group of developing countries with a high rate of electronic device consumption growth, resulting in approximately 100,000 tonnes of e-waste generated annually, mainly from household electronic appliances and office equipment (Bui, H. H., & Bui, T. N. (2024a) The critical question is how to transform e-waste from an environmental burden into an opportunity for developing a circular economy. This requires close coordination between management policies and recycling technologies, thereby contributing to the green growth objectives set out in Vietnam’s National Green Growth Strategy for the period 2021–2030, with a vision to 2050.

2. Research overview

In recent years, e-waste management and recycling have emerged as an important topic in environmental and sustainable development research. Globally, many developed countries have successfully implemented the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) model to enhance the efficiency of e-waste collection and recycling. For example, the European Union issued the WEEE Directive (Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment) in 2003, establishing a legal framework for the collection, recycling, and reuse of electrical and electronic equipment. This directive helped increase the e-waste recycling rate to 32% by 2022 (European Environment Agency, 2024). In Japan, the Home Appliance Recycling Law has been in effect since 2001, requiring manufacturers or importers to meet specific recycling targets (ranging from 55% to 82%) for used household electrical appliances and to recover substances such as CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs from air conditioners and refrigerators. Analysis of data from 2001 to 2007 shows that the amount of recycled household electrical appliances and materials increased from approximately 319,249 tons in 2001 to 447,262 tons (equivalent to 3.5 kg per person) in 2006 (Aizawa et al., 2008). Similarly, the Chinese government has issued multiple laws, regulations, and environmental standards related to the production of electronic equipment and e-waste treatment. Since 2004, four national pilot projects have been implemented in Hangzhou, Qingdao, Beijing, and Tianjin to: (1) establish e-waste collection networks; (2) support the development of technical standards; and (3) build formal treatment systems to replace informal ones. However, these projects faced difficulties because consumers preferred to sell old equipment to informal collectors for cash rather than deliver them to official collection points where no fee was paid (Yu, Williams, Ju, & Shao, 2010). The Global E-waste Monitor 2024 report highlights that if countries can increase their e-waste collection and recycling rate to 60% by 2030, the resulting benefits - including reduced health risks - would exceed costs by more than USD 38 billion (Baldé et al., 2024).

In terms of technology, modern methods currently applied include: mechanical processing such as shredding, sieving, and automatic sorting of metals and plastics; pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy for recovering precious metals from printed circuit boards; bioleaching using microorganisms to dissolve and extract metals; as well as AI and robotics applications in sorting to enhance efficiency and reduce costs (Kaya, 2016). These technologies have proven effective in many countries, contributing to the reuse of rare metal resources and the reduction of hazardous waste.

In Vietnam, several studies on e-waste management have been conducted. For example, the study “Assessment of the Status and Management of Household Electronic Waste in Can Tho City” by Nguyen Thanh Giao et al. (2021) examined the generation and management of household e-waste in Can Tho, highlighting limitations in collection, sorting, and treatment. The results showed that most e-waste is collected and treated by the informal sector, posing significant environmental and public health risks. The authors proposed strengthening management policies, establishing formal collection–recycling systems, and raising community awareness about e-waste. The study by Nguyen Thu Hien and Tran Phuong Thao (2019) titled “E-waste Recycling Activities in Vietnam and Some Recommendations” provided an overview of the current situation of e-waste recycling in Vietnam, pointing out key limitations such as the lack of formal collection systems, outdated technologies, and low public awareness. The authors also analyzed the sources of e-waste generation, challenges in regulatory mechanisms and input materials for the recycling sector, and proposed recommendations for policy improvement, national program development, business support, and public awareness enhancement to promote sustainable recycling. Another study, “Recovery of Copper from Waste Printed Circuit Boards in an Environmentally Friendly Way” by Nguyen Thi Thoa, Bui Thi Lu, and Tran Quang Hai (2020), focused on developing leaching methods to recover copper from waste printed circuit boards while minimizing pollution. The results showed that a Fe₂(SO₄)₃ + H₂O₂ solution achieved high leaching efficiency, while recovery with iron shavings yielded a purity of around 90%. The study contributes practical solutions for safe, efficient, and environmentally friendly e-waste treatment. According to Bui, H. H., & Bui, T. N. (2024b), a report by the Institute of Science, Technology and Environment – Hanoi University of Science and Technology (2024) also indicates that e-waste generation in Vietnam is increasing rapidly, while the official recovery and recycling rate remains very low compared to actual demand. This reveals a critical research gap, requiring scientific studies to analyze the relationship between e-waste management policies, recycling technologies, and green growth goals to serve as a reference for future policy-making.

3. Research methos

3.1. Research Approach

This study employs an interdisciplinary approach that integrates environmental science, public management, and sustainable development economics. The core objective is to analyze the relationship between e-waste management policies, recycling technology applications, and green growth goals in the context of Vietnam.

3.2. Data Collection Methods

Secondary Data: Collected from international reports such as the Global E-waste Monitor and the EU WEEE Reports, as well as published academic studies related to e-waste management and recycling technologies.

Domestic Data: Obtained from official reports of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (currently the Ministry of Agriculture and Environment), research projects, and statistical data on e-waste generation and management in Vietnam.

3.3. Research Limitations

This study primarily relies on secondary data and does not include quantitative surveys conducted directly at e-waste recycling enterprises or facilities in Vietnam. Therefore, the results are generalized and exploratory, aiming to provide an analytical framework for future empirical studies on the integration of policy and technology in e-waste management.

4. Research results

4.1. Theoretical Foundations of E-waste and Green Growth

4.1.1. Definition and Characteristics of E-waste

E-waste is defined as electrical and electronic equipment that has reached the end of its useful life or has been discarded, including computers, mobile phones, televisions, office equipment, and household electronic appliances (Balde et al., 2024). According to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU, 2023), e-waste possesses a dual nature: it contains economically valuable components such as precious metals, rare earth elements, and high-quality plastics, while also harboring hazardous substances such as lead, mercury, cadmium, and brominated flame retardants that can pollute the environment and pose serious risks to human health.

The distinctive characteristics of e-waste can be categorized into three main aspects.
First, material complexity, as e-waste contains multiple materials simultaneously - metals, plastics, glass, ceramics, and non-biodegradable compounds - making the recycling process technically challenging (Kumar et al., 2022). Second, dual value, as e-waste is both a valuable secondary resource and a potential source of environmental pollution if not managed properly (Van Yken et al., 2021). Third, rapid growth, since the volume of e-waste continues to increase globally due to accelerated technological innovation, short product life cycles, and the rapid expansion of the digital economy (Balde et al., 2024). Therefore, e-waste is not only a hazardous waste stream but also a potential resource that can be effectively managed, collected, and recycled to support green growth strategies.

The circular economy is considered a foundational framework guiding the development of recycling technologies, as achieving a sustainable model of material reuse requires technologies capable of effectively recovering, sorting, and recycling materials. According to Hamblet (2022), recycling technology comprises methods and processes designed to return used materials to their raw material state for the production of new products. Therefore, recycling technology can be understood as a set of methods, processes, and technical tools that convert waste into reusable materials or new input resources for manufacturing.

4.1.2. The Concept of Green Growth and Its Relationship with E-waste Management

Green growth is understood as an economic development model that aims to promote sustainable growth, minimize environmental degradation, use resources efficiently, and improve quality of life (OECD, 2011; World Bank, 2012). Within this context, e-waste management plays a crucial role in realizing green growth goals because e-waste is both a valuable secondary resource and a potential source of environmental pollution and public health risks if improperly treated (Balde et al., 2020; Forti et al., 2020).

The relationship between green growth and e-waste management can be analyzed in three key dimensions: First, recycling and reusing e-waste contribute to the development of a circular economy model, thereby reducing the demand for natural resource extraction and limiting greenhouse gas emissions (Zeng et al., 2018).Second, the application of advanced technologies in e-waste treatment improves resource efficiency while mitigating air, soil, and water pollution (Forti et al., 2020).Third, EPR-based e-waste management policies (Extended Producer Responsibility) encourage manufacturers to design environmentally friendly products, thereby linking production, consumption, and recycling activities to green development objectives (Widmer et al., 2005).

Effective e-waste management is therefore not merely a technical solution in the environmental sector, but also a strategic policy instrument that contributes to the transition toward a green growth model, in line with Vietnam’s National Green Growth Strategy for the period 2021–2030.

4.2. Current Policies and E-waste Recycling Technologies in Vietnam

4.2.1. Legal Framework and E-waste Management Policies in Vietnam

In recent years, Vietnam has gradually established and improved its legal framework for e-waste management, with a focus on sustainable development and alignment with national green growth objectives. The core of these policies is to establish a clear legal mechanism that promotes a circular economy model and expands the responsibilities of key stakeholders, particularly producers, importers, and recycling organizations.

First, Decision No. 16/2015/QĐ-TTg on the collection and treatment of discarded products specifies the responsibilities of organizations and individuals involved in the production and importation of electrical and electronic equipment to collect and treat products at the end of their life cycle (Prime Minister, 2015). This is one of the earliest policies laying the foundation for the EPR mechanism in Vietnam.

Second, the Law on Environmental Protection 2020 serves as a fundamental legal document that, for the first time, officially incorporates the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) mechanism into the legal framework for waste management, including e-waste (National Assembly, 2020). Under this law, producers and importers of electrical and electronic products are responsible for organizing or financing collection, recycling, and treatment activities at the end of the product’s life cycle. This regulation marks a shift from a traditional waste management model to a circular economy, reducing pressure on natural resource exploitation and mitigating environmental pollution.

Third, Decree No. 08/2022/NĐ-CP further specifies the EPR mechanism, requiring businesses to either organize collection and recycling themselves or contribute financially to the Vietnam Environmental Protection Fund, which the State uses to implement these activities (Government, 2022). This legal instrument establishes a transparent monitoring mechanism and encourages enterprises to participate directly in the e-waste collection and recycling chain.

Fourth, the National Green Growth Strategy for the period 2021–2030, vision to 2050, identifies waste management - particularly the recycling and reuse of e-waste - as one of the key priorities to promote a circular economy (Prime Minister, 2021). This document emphasizes reducing greenhouse gas emission intensity, improving resource efficiency, and developing an environmentally friendly recycling industry.

According to the National Environmental Report (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2022), the official e-waste collection system remains ineffective due to the lack of a comprehensive collection network and insufficient incentives to encourage public participation. The proportion of e-waste processed through formal channels is still very low, while most e-waste is collected and recycled by the informal sector (households, small facilities), where outdated technologies are used, and occupational and environmental safety is poorly controlled (Nguyen & Tran, 2021). This not only leads to significant loss of recyclable resources but also poses severe risks of soil, water, and air pollution.

In 2025, Decree No. 05/2025/NĐ-CP, which amends and supplements Decree No. 08/2022/NĐ-CP, expands the scope and subjects of EPR application, while specifying financial contribution mechanisms, transparency requirements, and implementation roadmaps for electrical and electronic products (Government, 2025). Although Vietnam’s legal framework and policies for e-waste management have been progressively improved, implementation remains challenging. To achieve green growth targets, Vietnam needs to strengthen policy enforcement, improve monitoring systems, promote the formal recycling sector, and enhance public–private cooperation as well as technological innovation in e-waste treatment.

4.2.2. Curent status of elctronic e-waste management in Vietnam

The collection and recycling system for electronic e-waste in Vietnam still faces numerous challenges, reflecting a significant gap between policy frameworks and practical implementation. According to the National Environmental Report, the amount of e-waste generated in Vietnam reaches approximately 257 thousand tons per year; however, less than 10% is formally collected for treatment and recycling (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2022). The lack of convenient collection points leads most discarded electronic devices to be sold to informal scrap collectors rather than entering the formal treatment system (Nguyen, T. H., Tran, M. D., & Pham, L. A., 2023). Informal recycling activities often lack safety standards and primarily rely on manual methods, such as burning wires to recover copper or immersing circuit boards in acid, resulting in the release of hazardous emissions into the environment (Chi, P. H., Nguyen, H. T., & Le, T. T., 2020). Global E-waste Monitor 2024, a collaborative report by the International Telecommunication Union and the United Nations University (Radulović et al., 2024), Viet Nam is classified among the countries with rapidly growing e-waste generation in the Asian region. However, the report does not document the establishment of national targets for e-waste collection and recycling in Viet Nam. At the regional level, the average annual formal collection and recycling rate in Asia is 11.8%, indicating significant limitations in the management of e-waste through formal systems.

In terms of technology, research and application of e-waste recycling methods in Vietnam have achieved some progress, although implementation remains limited. Domestic research groups have developed technologies for recovering metals and rare earth elements from discarded electronic devices. Notably, the research team led by Dr. Ha Vinh Hung at Hanoi University of Science and Technology developed a process to separate Yttrium and Europium from fluorescent lamps and LCD/LED screens with a recovery efficiency exceeding 99% (Department of Science and Technology of Binh Thuan, 2024). The arc-plasma furnace technology developed by Le Van Lu and colleagues is also recognized for its efficiency in recovering valuable metals from electronic circuit boards. Additionally, research on gold (Au) recycling and the application of adsorbent materials in e-waste processing by Dr. Trieu Quoc An at Nguyen Tat Thanh University has been acknowledged as a promising solution (Department of Science and Technology of Binh Thuan, 2024). At the industrial level, domestic recycling facilities primarily apply two main technological approaches - hydrometallurgical and pyrometallurgical methods - which are suitable for the characteristics of electronic circuit boards and allow for the recovery of copper, silver, and other valuable metals (Nguyen, H. Q., Do, H. N., & Kieu, Q. P., 2020). Nevertheless, the adoption of advanced recycling technologies remains limited, with the majority of e-waste still being processed in the informal sector.

Organizationally, the Vietnam Recycles program (VRP), coordinated by leading electronics manufacturers such as HP, Apple, and Microsoft, has implemented free e-waste collection to ensure professional and environmentally friendly recycling processes (Tran, T. T., Vu, T. C., & Pham, T. N., 2021). Vina Technology Recycling Company Limited (URENCO) also participates in collection and recycling; however, its capacity and scale remain limited, insufficient to meet the increasing volume of e-waste (Phan & Bui, 2021).

Furthermore, community awareness regarding safe e-waste collection and disposal remains low; many people cannot distinguish e-waste from regular household waste or are unaware of official take-back programs organized by manufacturers (Hoang & Nguyen, 2022). This indicates an urgent need for Vietnam to improve the collection system, enhance technological recycling capacity, and strengthen public communication to encourage citizen participation in a sustainable e-waste management chain.

5. Discussion

Amid the rapid increase in e-waste generation and the limited capacity for its management, collection, and recycling, developing and implementing effective policies is an urgent requirement for advancing green growth and sustainable development in Vietnam. Several key policy implications can be proposed as follows:

First, it is essential to improve the legal framework for e-waste management. Although Vietnam has issued several legal documents related to the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) mechanism, enforcement and monitoring remain limited. Therefore, a more comprehensive legal framework should be established, accompanied by enhanced monitoring capacity. Emphasis should be placed on strengthening penalties for violations and ensuring transparency in reporting on e-waste collection and recycling activities. This would not only improve management efficiency but also encourage businesses to fully implement their environmental responsibilities.

Second, promote investment in advanced production and recycling technologies. Investing in modern manufacturing technologies and adopting strong circular economy practices can extend product durability, facilitate repairability, and reduce the amount of e-waste generated. One of the major barriers to effective e-waste management in Vietnam is the lack of modern recycling technologies, resulting in low recycling efficiency and high environmental risks. Therefore, the State should introduce supportive policies such as tax incentives, green credit schemes, or environmental funds to encourage businesses to invest in high-tech recycling systems. This will help increase the competitiveness of the recycling industry and drive circular economy development.

Third, strengthen public–private partnerships (PPPs) in e-waste management. E-waste management cannot rely solely on either the government or enterprises; instead, it requires close collaboration among all stakeholders. PPP models can create mechanisms for resource sharing, connecting producers, recyclers, and regulatory agencies, thereby forming a closed-loop circular value chain. This aligns with modern governance trends and helps enhance the effectiveness and sustainability of policy implementation.

Fourth, raise public awareness of e-waste. Public perception plays a crucial role in shaping behaviors related to waste sorting, collection, and disposal. Therefore, it is necessary to implement widespread communication campaigns through mass media, social networks, schools, and community programs. Equipping citizens with knowledge about the harmful effects of e-waste and the benefits of recycling can help change consumption behaviors and encourage active societal participation.

Fifth, develop a formal and convenient collection system. Currently, most e-waste in Vietnam is handled through the informal sector, posing significant environmental and public health risks. It is therefore necessary to establish an official collection network with multiple accessible drop-off points, such as in urban areas, supermarkets, shopping centers, and government agencies. This will make it easier for citizens to participate, increase the formal collection rate, and reduce dependence on the informal sector.

Sixth, strengthen international cooperation in e-waste management. Vietnam should actively learn from countries with advanced management systems such as Japan and the European Union, which have successfully implemented EPR mechanisms and modern recycling technologies. International cooperation is also essential to prevent the illegal import of e-waste, ensuring Vietnam’s compliance with international commitments, especially the Basel Convention on the transboundary movement of hazardous waste.

6. Conclusion

Electronic waste presents both a significant challenge and a unique opportunity for Vietnam in its transition toward a circular economy and green growth. The study indicates that, although the national collection and recycling system remains limited and a substantial portion of e-waste is still processed in the informal sector, domestic research and technological applications have achieved notable progress. These include hydrometallurgical and pyrometallurgical methods, arc-plasma furnace technology, and processes for recovering valuable metals and rare earth elements with high efficiency (over 99% for Yttrium and Europium). Initiatives such as the Vietnam Recycles Program (VRP) and companies like URENCO have implemented professional e-waste collection and treatment systems, contributing to the development of formal and environmentally friendly recycling models.

These results demonstrate that integrating Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) policies with substantial investment in advanced recycling technologies and effective enforcement mechanisms can transform e-waste from an environmental burden into a valuable resource. This approach contributes directly to sustainable development objectives and the establishment of a circular economy. The achievements in research and practical implementation provide a strong